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Bioenergetics: Movement of energy between organisms

Chapter 23 Classification (380-386)

Taxonomy-study of classification & how kingdoms came about
         Five Kingdoms: Anamalia, Plantae, Fungi, Protoctists, and Prokaryote
                       Needed because of so many organisms (2.5 million)
History:4th century BC- Aristotle: lay foundation, classify according to parts,
                 based on observations of blood/noblood, animals by air/water/land
     Theophratits-plants by stem (soft, large, amount)
    Mid 1700s- Carolus Linnaeus: (Sweden), father of Modern
                 Classification, started with two kingdoms, Systema Naturi,
                 Binomial Nomenclature-Latin (easy to understand, no longer
                 spoken-doesn't change), can easily add/move
           Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
                 (name Genus species)-italicized or underlined
     Modern: has changed, more kingdoms, more organisms

Cell Basics:
People:
  Anton Von Leewenhoek-developing 1st microscope
  Robert Hooke-coined "cell," saw 1st cell
  Matthais Schleiden-1st to recognise that all plants have cells 1838
  Thedor Schwann-recognized that all animals have cells 1839
  Rudolf Virchow-all cells come from preexisting cells 1850s

Cell Theory:
   basis for studying, reference point
   by Schleiden & Schwann
   1.) all living things are composed of cells
   2.) cells are basic units of structure & function of living things
   3.) all cells come from pre-existing cells

Cells vary in size: (micrometer=millionth of meter)
       smallest: 0.02 micrometer in diameter
       largest: 1000 micrometer in diameter
       most between 5-50 micrometers in diameter

Some structure are common to most cells:
1.) cell membrane-regulates what enters & leaves, aids in protection & support, composed of a double layer of lipids
(bilayer), proteins act as channels, allow
molecules to pass, carbohydrates attatched to proteins enable calls to recognize/interact-->fluid mosaic model
2.) nucleus-large dark structure in many cells, not present in all cells, contains DNA(genetic material), directs activities
that occur in living cells, surrounded by
nuclear envelope which allows molecules to move in&out, contains nucleolus<--made of RNA&proteins
3.) Cytoskeleton-framework of filaments & fibers for support & movement, composed of microtubes made out of
proteins/produce centrioles, microfilaments permit
movement of cytoplasm (cytoplasmic streaming)
4.) cytoplasm-area that contains organelles, protein rich semifluid (cytosol)
5.) mitochondria-cellular respiration changes chemical energy in foods into compounds<--ATP, made of 2 membranes
(outer surounds organelles, inner has folds to
increase surface area), several hundred per cell
6.) cell wall-in plants, algae, some bacteria, protects & supports cell, very porous--allowing H2O, O2, & CO2 to pass,
made up of cellulose fibers(plants) which makes
wall stretch as it grows

Osmosis-H2O moves high concentration to low through selectively permeable membrane
Osmotic pressure-moves H2O from more dilute to concentrated
                               plant cell wall prevents H2O from moving at high speed
contractile vacule-pushes excess water back out

diffusion-any substance from high concentration to low till balence (equilibrium), once equal-H2O moves back & forth to
maintain

sodium potassium pumps-molecules carrying other molecules

passive transport-no energy required (ex. diffusion)
active transport-requires energy, allow special transport molecules through proteins (ex. exocytosis-contractile
vacuole, phagocytosis- food particles engulfed,
pinocytosis- tiny vacuoles form around cell)

Plant Structure (chap 31)

Plants are made of tissues that form organs but don not have organ systems:
Roots:monocot, dicot; to absorb H20 & nutrients from soil, hold
       plant in place
Stem:monocot, dicot; vascular bundles; support, tissues for
       H20 transport
Leaves: monocot, dicot; absorb sunlight for photosynthesis
Reproductive structures: gymnosperms(cones)
                                     angiosperms(flowers)

Leaf structure:
1.leaf blade-big flat surface of leaf
2.Midrib-large vein through center
3.Veins-smaller branching veins
4.Xylem & Phloem-tubes within veins
5.Petiole-stalk, connection bwtween leaf & stem
6.Stomate-opening
7.Upper Epidermis-top
8.Cuticle-on top of upper epidermis, waxy layer, keeps in H20
9.Mesophyll-middle, made of Palisade & Spongy Mesophyll
10.Spongy Mesophyll-spread out cells
11.Palisade layer-long, skinny cellss hanging down from upper
                  epidermis;contains most chloroplasts(photosynthesis)
12. Lower Epidermis-bottom

Three types of tissue:
Meristematic-embrionic tissue (all other tissues formed from this)
                   made up of cells that rapidly divide(mitosis)
                   thin walled, smaller cells
                   tip of root(longer)& stem(taller)
1. Protective(Epidermal)-to protect cell from bacteria/insects
                   one cell layer, tightly packed
                   secrete Cutin (forms cuticle)
2. Vascular-xylum&phloem, conducting tissues, long tubes
3. Fundamental(Ground)-pith

Leaves-composed of combinations of protective, fundamental& vascular tissue.
Roots-composed of combinationas of protective, vascular, & meristematic cells.

Root Systems: (hold the plant in place and take in H20/minerals
   as large as the system of stems/branches
1. Taproot- 1 larger root, some smaller (ex. carrot)
2. Fibrous- many same size roots
3. Adventitious- roots come out of stem

Growth:root cap
           meristematic zone
           elongation zone
           maturation zone
Path of water:
1. osmosis: soil->roots
2. diffusion: epidermis->cortex->endodermis->pericycle->xylem
3. movement: root xylem->stem xylem-> leaf xylem (veins)

In dicot:
xylem-adds diameter to tree (rings), close to vascular cambium->newest cells,
   (growing conditions: spring-more H20, summer-less H20)
phloem-squished, produced at lower rate than xylem

Learn from cross section:
1. weather/climate conditions
2. age of tree
3. how fast it grows
4. fire-charred area
5. insects small area of growth

remove bark-tree died (no phloem-no food)
Girdling-removing bark from place all around tree-tree dies

Plant Movement
1. Tropism-response/movement toward a stimulus
  Phototropism-in response to light
  Geotropism-gravitropism, response to gravity
   (benificial-get maximum sunlight; roots anchor, get H20/minerals)
   growth process-height/diameter
   apical meristem-top of stem (elongation)
   to bend-cells on one side elongate faster than other side
          caused by auxin(IAA)-growth hormone produced by cells exposed to light
                                           active transport carries to shaded side
                                           shaded cells elongate-plant bends
                                           most important hormone
       in roots-auxin causes elongation (in response to gravity)
          in cortex cells- starch grains-change position in cells leads to auxin
2. Nastic (sismonastic)-touching movement w/o (independent of) the direction
                                   of the stimulus
   impulse triggers auxin-grow together \grow larger everytime it closes
   to open - auxin on inside                    /  (only couple times in life)
   ex. venus fly trap;mymosa plant-touch leaflets cause complete collapse (loss
           of turgor pressure)
  Charles Darwin 1880s experiment:
      oat seedlings(monocot) a.)control b.)tip stem cut off c.)tip stem covered
                                    grow:    to sun            straight            straight
  Fritz Vent 1920s experiment:proves that auxin (1st identified)
      oat seedlings: a. remove collioptile, place on auger cube
                            b.auxin diffuses into auger cube, place on one side of stem
                            c. auxin diffuses into stem
                            d. cells on that side elongate->bend
3.Chemotropism- movement in response to a chemical
4. Thigmotropism-growth that is equal because plant makes contact with solid
                           object
The Growth Hormones(sm. concentrations;produceinmeristematic;transported)
            production controlled by genetic code/environment
            variables:many
   1. Auxin:  most important
                   IAA-indoleacetic acid
                   produced in apical meristem
                   cause elongation-taller stem, long roots(terminal region)
                   stimulates lateral root growth-marketed as rooting solution
                   inhibits lateral buds
                   kill certain plants at a certain concentrations(dicots)herbacides
                   used to stimulate growth of fruit (bypass fertilization)
   2. Gibberellins: produced meristematic
                   promote growth (similar to auxin)
                   break down endosperm(seed coat)-germination-enzymes
   3. Cytokinins: preform opposite function of auxin
                   premote cell division/growth of lateral buds
                   meristematic zone
                   inhibits growth of lateral roots
   4. Abscisic Acid: growth inhibiter
                   involved in dormancy of seeds (protection device)
                   closing stomates
                   shedding of flowers
   5. Ethylene: gas given off by ripening fruit (premotes aging)

Genetics (CH. 12)
Genetics: branch of biology studying heredity
heredity: info offspring receive from parents chromosomes
             what makes indivindual unique
Theory of Blending Inheritance:
       pre-19th century explanation for resemblance of parent/offspring
       mother/father mixture of characteristics
Gregor Mendel:Austrian monk, carried out experiments over time in garden,
       used garden pea, father of modern genetics, applied math to genetics,
       forced cross pollination with contrasting traits
self-pollination:pollen from stamen to pistil on same flower, plant offespring
       inherit all characteristics of parent (indentical), stop by removing stamen.
cross-pollination: pollen from stamen on one flower to pistil on another flower,
       plant off-spring--mix characteristics
pure-bread plants: plants allowed to self pollinate, used by Mendel (in garden)
traits: characteristics passed from parent to offspring

Mendel's Experiment:
   7 characteristics- seed shape, seed color, pod color, flower position, plant
                             height, seat coat color, pod shape
   1st experiment: cross short & tall (seeds planted-grew)
           P1= parent generation         tall X short
           F1= 1st fillial generation     tall X tall
           F2= 2nd fillial generation    tall, tall, tall, short  (3:1 ratio)
   Three Hypothesis:
1. (Tall plants crossed w/short plants produced an F1 generation of tall plants,
   but short plants appeared again in the F2 generation.  Thus, some influence
   within plant must control height)
***Inherited traits are controlled by a factor (genes), which occur in pairs
2. (The tall plants must contain a factor for their tallness, but they must
   also contain a factor for shortness since it appeared in the F2 generation)
***Principle of dominance and recessiveness: one factor(gene) in a pair may
   mask the other, or prevent it from having affect
3. (A recessive gene in a hybrid is not changed by the presence of a
   dominant gene)
***Law of Segregation: A pair of genes is segregated of seperated

dominance-there when present, masks recessive
recessive-trait masked when dominatn present
genotype- shows genes present
phenotype- effect caused in an organism
homozygous- paired genes are indenticle (TT) or (tt)
heterozygous-paired genes are not identicle (Tt)
hybrid- organism produced by crossing parents w/ different traits
alleles- different forms of a gene (T-tall, t-short)
gametes- type of reproductive cell
punnet square- special chart used tp predict possible results of gene pairing
                       and probibility of each pairing
reproduction- combinationof male and female characteristics
sexual- combination of male and female parents
fertilization- when sperm and egg unite
zygote- fertilized egg
sperm & egg- reproductive cells
chromosomes- carries genetic information
meiosis- how reproductive cells are produced (formation of egg and sperm)
   involves diploid cells dividing twice to form haploid cells(gametes-sperm/egg)
   gametes unite, fertilization occurs, zygote formed
haploid- cells containing one set of chromosomes-sperm & egg
diploid- cells containing two sets of chromosomes- somatic (body) cells
chromosomes: in every living organism, rodlike structure, participate in meiosis
       to pass heredity, contains genes(DNA)-specific nucleotide sequence,
       matching pairs, 2 sets allow for greater diversity
somatic cells- body cells, diploid
homologous chromosomes- matching pairs of chromosomes
Sexual Reproduction- 2 haploid form diploid, fertilization forms zygote,
       zygote develops into offspring-carries combined genes
Asexual Reproduction- offspring genetically indentical to parent, new cells
       produced by mitosis(# chrom constant), diploid cell becomes 2 diploid cells
       ex. budding, bionary fission, vegatative reproduction, fragmentation
Kariotype- chromosomes photographed and cut out, match homologous pairs,
       put on kariotype. able to determine male or female, if all chrom are there,
       pieces missing, or additional (genetic disorders)

Meiosis I:
Pre-Prophase- chromosomes replicate (4N cell-not visible)
Prophase I- chromosomes shorten & become visible
                 chromosomes seek homologus pair (have same traits)
                 homologous pairs form tetrad (4)-chromatids(indiviual strand)
                 crossing over occurs-piece changes place(exchange of genetic info)
Metaphase I- tetrads line up at center (equator)
                   centromeres attatch to spindle fibers
Anaphase I- chromatid pairs of tetrad pulled toward opposite polls
                 centromeres intact
Telephase I- cell divides into 2 smaller cells (daughter cells)
                  each daughter recieves homologous pair
                 daughter cells have diploid number (2N)
Meiosis II:
Prophase II- chromosomes still duplicated, become visible again
Metaphase II- chromatids pair align along equator, attatch to spindle fiber
                   centromeres break apart
Anaphase II- chromosomes seperated
                   move to opposite polls
Telephase II- single set chromosomes in 4 daughter cells
                   gametes-haploid (N)

genes code for same thing but not neccessarily same trait-
   located at equivalent places (locus)
selective breeding- for better food (new crops)

Degrees of Dominance:
1. incomplete dominance- dominant unable to make recessive trait completely
       result->complete blending of trait (some dom., some recess., some blend)
       ex. Brown, Palamino, White horses
2. codominance- dominant unable to maske recessice
       result-> both show up
       ex. red, roan, white haired cattle
3. multiple alleles
       ex. A, B, AB, O blood types
4. simple dominance- dominant always masks recessive (2 alleles)

Human Heredity:
1. 1890- cells observed in males/females identical except one pair
  autosomes- same in male/female (chrom 1-22); paired
   sex chromosomes- dissimilar (chrom 23); mismatched
       -same females "XX"; different males "XY"
       - 50% male or female
       - "Y" chromosome- smaller, hookshaped, carries traits for maleness
                                 - can't developed by itself ("X" can)
       - males determine sex
       - "X" carries several traits
2. 1902- Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance-Theodore Boveri, Sutton
       -genes located on chromosomes (hypothesis)
3. 1910- Thomas Hunt Morgan substanciated hypothesis (fruit fly experiment)
       -crossed male-white eyed female with red eyes
       - crossed F1-> got 1:2:1 ratio
       - all with recessive trait (white eyes) were male
       - male likely to show recessive(only need 1"r"because"Y"doesn't carry)
nondisjunction- meiosis does not occur properly, causes genetic disorders,
       can affect autosomal & sex cells
Turner Syndrome- most some disease with sex cell
       45 X, slight mental retardation, dwarfness, sterile
Klinefelter syndrome- 47XXY, make w/female qualities, sterile
sex-linked- color blindness, hemophylla (blood can't clot)
sex-influenced trait- baldness Bb-men blad, women normal
3 methods to detect genetic disorders:
   1. amniocentesis- long needle removing amniotic fluid from womb,
           contains embriotic cells
   2. chronic villi sampling- cells removed from placenta
   3. ultra sound- see image of baby, measure development & growth
 

DNA Structure (CH.15)
chromosomes contain 6 billion nucleotide pairs
gene-segement of DNA that codes for a particular trait (100,000 in each chrom)

DNA stores info:
   1. must duplicate easily
   2. polmer- chains repeating
   3. nucleotide- what makes up polmer
Nucleotide:
   1. 5 carbon sugar (deoxiribose)
   2. a phosphate group (PO4)
   3. nitrogenous bases (Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, Thymine)
complementary halves
Adenine & Guanine are purines
Cytosine & Thymine are pyrimidines

Watson& Crickcredited with identifying double helix structure

weak hydrogen bond attatches bases
bonding created double helix to put lots of info in small space

DNA Synthesis (Replication):
1. unzip DNA- seperate strands
2. one strand serves as a templet
3. enzyme "DNA Polymerase" causes seperation
4. enzyme moves along to read genetic code
5. copy which can leave nuclues is RNA (goes to Ribosome for protein synthesis)
       1. 3 letters group for particular amino acids
       2. chain of amino acids= protein
       3. protein codes for trait

Protein Synthesis:
1. production of mRNA (by seperation of DNA)
   1. DNA serves as a template (set of patterns)
   2. complementary RNA nucleotides assemble
       (don't copy entire structure-start and stop codens in base sequence)
   3. transcription(make copy of DNA in nucleus)
2. mRNA goes to ribosomes
   1. translation-interpreting code to produce chain of Amino Acids
   2. codons-groups of three letters, code for Amino Acids (20)
3. tRNA-anticodon sequence tells tRNA which amino acid needed fromcytoplasm
   1.moves through cytoplasm-finds amino acid-conds-brings back
ex. DNA:    CCT            GCT            TGT            GTG            GAA
   mRNA:  GGA            CGA            ACA            CAC             CUU
    tRNA:   CCU            GCU            TCT            GTG             GAA
   amino   glycine        arginine      threonine   histidine      leucine

Genetic Engineering:
Luther Burbank-research with plants, 250 plant varieties, made people aware
selective breeding-been around for a long time, get rid of bad characteristics,
       perpetuate good, not guarenteed to get traits (recessive), inbreeding
       occurs, lose trait from gene pool, undesirable traits show up, takes long
       time, useful but slow and chancy.
hybridization- perpetuate good characteristics, takes 2 related species to
       produce new type, needs to be a seen trait (mutations favorable)->
       trait mutigenisis
       ex. seedless orange, hairless mice
Biotechnology: developed to speed up, reduce problems & change uses of
       genetic engineering, differ-> direct altering of genetic code, takes DNA
       strand, cut & splice in new, to rewrite-> restrictive enzymes are proteins
       that cut DNA at specific places, new piece glued in w/ DNA ligese
  recombinant DNA- strand that has new genes inserted in
   plasmid-sections of bacteria to get DNA in cell, often used as a vector to
           transefer new DNA
  transgenic- genetically altered (have recombinant DNA)
  1980s- scientists successful in bacteria, plants, animals
Transgenic bacteria:
   ex. insulin, human growth hormone, eats oil, protect plant from frost,
       protect roors, cleans air, vaccine
Transgenic plants:
   ex. 50 different- soy, rice, alfalfa, corn
   ex. plants tolerant to heat & cold, resist salt content in soil, more nutritious,
       less fertilizer, produce chemicals of intrest to humans, glowing plants
Transgenic animals:
   moral rights issues-gene farming
   foreign genes infected into egg before fertilization
   ex. larger fish, cows-milk with human protein, pigs, rabbits, sheep
   reasons- cures for many dieases
   goals: early intervention/ prevention of genetic diseases

Human Genome Project:
   goals- 1. map human chromosomes (genes, traits lie)
             2. determines 3 billion bases in human genome
 
 

Kingdom Prokaryote or Moneran or Bacteria
Prokaryotae- no nuclear membrane, no nucleus
                  living cell w/o membrane bound organells
                  only bacteria, single cell
Capsule- protection from antibodies, white bloodcells
Cell Wall- protection, less rigid than plant, made of peptodpglycan
Cell Membrane- regulates what goes in/ out of cell
Mesosome- folding of membrane (ripple)
                increases surface area for chemical reactions
Cytoplasm
Ribocomes- protein synthesis(1000s)
DNA- single strand of chromosome
plasimid- circular DNA structure
             vector to carry new chromosomes
             reproduction in unfavorable conditions
fimbriae- short, hairlike projection
             attachment points
flagellum(a)- pair extending from body
               aid in movement
               composed of flagellin protein
found-> everywhere
simplest & most numerous organism
3 shapes: shere- Coccus: monococcus, diplococcus, streptococcus, staphylococcus
   rod- Bacillus: monobacillus, diplobacillus, streptobacillus
              spiral- Spirillum
More good than Bad: understand to find cures, in biotech, solve enviro prob,
                               digestion, control growth
Endospore- portion of bacterium; reproductivfe method for bad consitions
Energy source:
   1. obligate aerobes- require O2, cellular respiration
   2. facultative anaerobes- either presence or absence of O2
                                         anaerobic respiration or fermentation
   3. obligate anaerobes- only fermination(different organic compunds)
Heterotrophic-most bacteria, depend on others for food
   1. saprobes-dead plants/animals,don't cause diease, release digestive enzymes
                     to absorb
   2. parasites- living organisms, cause disease, absorb directly
Autotrophic- makes own food
   1. photosynthetic- uses light energy
   2. kemosynthetic- uses/breaks down chemicals
Reproduction:
   asexual- Bionary Fission (chrom divided-splits in half)- identical daughter
               conditions affect rate (15-20 min) temp, food, moisture, space
   sexual- conjugation-protein bridge between 2 bacterium-exchange
               increases genetic diversity
Bacterial Growth Curve:
1. Lag Phase- bacteria starts to grow, familiarize with environment
2. Exponential Growth Phase- rapid growth, birth exceeds death
3. Stationary Phase- birth/death equal rate
4. Death Phase- more death than birth

Archaebacteria:live in extreme environments
1. methanogens- produce methane, found bottom of marshes, bogs, intestines
2. halophiles- saltloving bacteria, Dead Sea, Great Salt Lake
3. thermo(acid)ophiles- hot acidic environment, hot sulfur springs
Eubacteria: true bacteria, largest group
1. cyanobacteria (blue/green algae)- carry on photosynthesis (Ch.A)
       other colored pigments present, Red Sea
2. Schizophyta- small group, gram positive
3. Prochlorobacteria- contains Ch. A/B, chloroplasts of plants

Hans Christian Gram- developed staining test
   cell wall stains pink or purple
   gram positive- purple(thick cell wall)-treated w/ antibiotics
  gram negative- pink(thin cell wall)- cant be treated w/ antibiotics
   looks at cell wall-in Eubacteria ONLY
Uses of Bacteria:
   Genetic Engineering:
       1. cleaning up oil spills
       2. insilin production
       3. using as vector
   Industry:
       1. producing drugs & chemicals
       2. clean up water supply
   Medicines
   Environmental:
       1. environmental impacts
       2. break down dead tissue
   Food: yogurt, cheese, sour cream, buttermilk
   Symbiotic relationships:
       1. breaks down cellulose
       2. Nitrogen Fixation
Koch's Postulates:set procedure to identify what bacteria causes disease
  -Robert Koch-> 1st to say bacteria causes disease
   1. The suspected disease causing organism should always be found in animals
       with the disease.
   2. The organism must be isolated and grown in pure culture.
   3. Organisms from pure culture placed in healthy animal must cause disease
   4. Organism must be isolated and grown again and be the same organism.
Germ Theory->Louis Pasteur
   1. harm body by being so numerous they interfere w/normal function
   2. distroy body cells & tissues
   3. produce poisons
pathogens-> harmful bacteria
To control:
   1. Sir Alexander Fleming-developed Penicillin(antibiotic)->derivitive of mold
       penicillin interferes with formation of cell wall
   2. vaccines
   3. hygene-wash hands, etc.
   4. refrigeration/freezing-slow down growth
   5. pasturization-heat to kill
   6. sterilization/boiling-heat&pressure/just heat(121C, 10-40min w/pressure)
   7. drying foods-removing moisture (needs it to live)
   8. canning- heating glass @ high temp
   9. adding preservatives-changes conditions
   10. disinfectants
Bacterial Infections Spread by:
   1. insects
   2. coughing/sneezing->air borne droplets
   3. shaking hands->direct contact
   4. sexual contact
   5. contaiminated water
   6. food
 

Virus
1.T-4 bacteriophage attacks bacteria
2.literally means poison
3. not bacteria, smaller (1 billionth of meter -nanometer)
4. not in any kingdom, classified by self
5. do not have characteristics of living organisms (reproduce, DNA)
6. noncellular material
7.  difficult to control
8. requires electron microscope to barely see
9. capsid- outside covering, made of protein (host cell), surround Nucleic Acid
10. Nucleic Acid- DNA/RNA, hundreds of genes
11. neck- has tube to pass DNA into bacteria "sheath"
12. tail fibers- aid in attatchment
13. infect all kingdoms

Controlling Virus:
1. vaccine-weaked virus injected into body and antibodies produced to fight it

Spread Virus:
1. same way as bacteria (cough, sneeze, etc.)

Time Line:
1. 1884: Louis Pasteur-suggest something smaller than bacteria to cause
           disease (used virus to describe)
2. 1892: Ivanowsky- set up filter so no bacteria sould pass through, but
           something did (virus)
3. 1935- Wendle Stanley- chemically isolate tobacco mosaic virus (elec. micro)
4. 1950s- field of virology takes off
        Saulk-vaccine for Pollio
  Edward Gener- developed 1st vaccine for small pox from milk maids

Virus Shapes:
1. phage- many sided
2. rod
3. spherical- HIV(retrovirus)
4. spiral- E Boli
5. oval

Lytic Cycle:
1. attatchment stage- attatch by using tail fibers, capsid combines with receptor
2. penetration- viral DNA enters host
3. biosynthesis- viral components synthesized (made)
4. maturation- assemble viral components (virons), release enzyme to break
                       cell wall
5. release- cell wall bursts & new viruses leave host cell

Lysogenic Cycle:
1. attatchment- same
2. penetration- same
3. integration- virus' DNA splices into host cell DNA and are passed on when
                       bacteria reproduce (over years)
4. Biosynthesis- something triggers viral parts to synthesize (make take yrs)
5. maturation- same
6. release- same
 
 
 

Protista Kingdom (CH. 25)
Characteristics:
   1. 115,000 species
  2. eukaryotic
   3. diversity: uni/multicellular, hetero/autotrophic, a/sexual reproduction,
                       aquatic/terrestrial, solitary/colonial
   4. in this kingdom because don't fit anywhere else
Animal-like (Protozoa)
   1. single-celled
   2. some are colonial(exist together in group)
   3. heterotrophic
           a. engulf food
           b. absorb food through cell membrane
   4. Sarcodine
           a. movement->false foot(pseudopod)
           b. some have rigid coating (CaCO3)
           c. movement of cytoplasm(cytoplasmic streaming) form pseudopods
           d. ex. radiolarian, heliozoan, foraminifera
           e. ex. amoeba
                   1. found in fresh H2O
                   2. engulfs prey (surrounds with pseudopods)-phagocytosis
                   3. preys on paramecium, bacteria, smaller animals
                   4. responsible for disease (amoebic dysintary)
                   5. reproduce by bionary fission/budding
                   6. measured w/millimeters
   5. Ciliophora (Ciliate)
           a. movement by cillia
           b. reproduce by bionary fission or sexual conjuagation
           c. ex. Paramecium
                   1. single cell
                   2. heterotrophic- absorb food through cell membrane->
                 oral groove-> gullet-> food vacuole
                   3. cillia all over body(pass food to oral groove)
                   4. macronucleus- regulates cell activities (disinigrates during conj)
                   5. micronucleus- reproduction, hereditary info
                   6. waste removed through anal pore
                   7. lysosomes provide digestive enyzmes
                   8. feeds on bacteria
                   9. contractile vacuole-regulates water in cell
           d. ex. Stentor
                   1. cillia on large end of funnel-oral groove, gullet
                   2. turquois green/blue
                   3. multiple nuclei
                   4. pellicle- cell membrane foldings to give rigid outer structure
   6. Zoomastigina (Zooflagelates)
           a. movement by flagella
           b. ex. paranema
                   1. free-living
                   2. flagella will pull organism along
           c. ex. Trypanosoma gambiense
                   1. parasitic
                   2. cause African sleeping sickness
                   3. tse-tse fly passes on
           d. some harmful to humans
           e. ex. Trichonympha
                   1. symbiotic
                   2. lives in gut of a termite
                   3. helps in digestion of wood
           f. absorb food through cell membrane
           g. fresh H2O lakes, pond
   7. Sporozoans
           a. nonmotile
           b. parasitic
           c. characterized by complex life cycle
           d. ex. plasmodium vivax
                   1. causes malaria in humans
                   2. spread by mosquitos(females-Anopheles-are the ones to pass on)
                   3. mosquito bites human, mosquito injest blood/plasmodian cells,
                       cells develop rapidly, bits human, plasmodium infects liver cells,
                       liver cells burst-release plasmodium cells, to red blood cells will
                       burst at intervals of 48-72h to release toxin, can kill you
                   4. best way to treat is to eliminate breeding ground
Plant-Like (Algae)
   1. chloroplasts
   2. cell wall, food
   3. most unicellular/some multicellular
   4. some motile/some not
   5. Euglenophyta (Euglenoids)
  a.  ex. Euglena
                   1. both heterotrophic/autotrophic
                   2. fresh/pond water
                   3. contains chloroplasts (10-20)
                   4. eyespot (stigma)-detects light
   6. Chryopytha (Golden Brown Algae)
  a. ex. Diatoms
                   1. have shell (valves-silica-fit together)
                   2. have chloroplasts
                   3. when die-cells accumulate on ocean floor
                              1. Diatomacious Earth-mined, food for aquatic animals
   7. Dinophlagelates (Pyrophta)-Fire Algae
  a. have ability to glow (bioluminesecense)
           b. food for aquatic animals-deadly to organisms in H2O
   8. Chlorophyta (Green Algae)
  a. ex. spirogyra, volvox, chlamydomonas
           b. pyrenoid-charbohydrate synthesis
   9. Phaeophyta (Brown Algae)
           a. common seaweed
           b. ex. kelp, sargassum
           c. has chlorophyll & caritine (brown color)
           d. mostly ocean, some fresh, land
           e. cell wall contains agar.
   10. Rhodophyta (Red Algae)
           a. cell wall contains agar
           b. ex. carrageenan
Fungus-Like
   1. similar to fungus-difference ameoboid stage-looks like ameoboid
   2. heterotrophic-saprobes, decomposers/some parasitic
   3. Myxomycota
           a. colonial
           b. single celled
           c.  many neucli
           d. resemble giant ameoba
           e. feed on organic matter-forest floor
           f. all different colors
           g. ex. plasmodium-combination of ameoba like
   4. Acrasiomycota
           a. similar to above but multicellular
           b. ex. plasmodium
   5. Oomycota
           a. ex. water mold, downy mildew(plant parasite-potatoe blight)
           b. finely branched filamentous

Animal Kingdom (CH. 28/29)
1 million species--30 phylum

1.) porifera (sponges)-5,000
2.) cnidaria (coelenterates)-11,000
3.) worms-platyhelminthers(flat)\
               nematodes(round)     -- 26,000
               annelids (segmented)  /
4.) mollusks-80,000
5.) Arthropods-826,000
6.) Echinoderms-5,000
7.) Chordates-47,000
zoology-branch of study of animals

In Order to Survive an animal must:
1. feed
2. respire (take in & exchange gases w/surrounding environments)
3. circulate oxygen & nutrients
4. eliminate waste
5. respond to environmental conditions
6. reproduce
7. move from one place to another

2 main groups: Invertebrates-no backbones
                      Vertebrates- backbones

Symmetry: produce = portions when cutting
1. asymmetrical-no way to cut to produce equal halves
2. spherical-volvox, sphere shaped organism; many ways to cut equally
3. radial- starfish, hydra
4. bilateral- organism will vary from top to bottom
           a. dorsal-upper side or back of animal
           b. ventral- lower side or belly
           c. anterior end (postion)-front or head end
           d. posterior end (position)- rear or tail end

Animal:a multi-cellular organism that must obtain food from their environment. Most have nervous/muscular systems that
allow them to move.  Must reproduce
sexually.  Some of the simpler forms also reproduce asexually.  In some animals, the young have the basic features of
the adult.  But in others, the young are
different from the adult.  In these cases, the young are known as larve, which undergo a series of developmental
changes that produce the adult form.

Sponge: cellular layer of organization-simplest  multicellular animal
1. spicules-skeletal structure, gives shape, made of CaCO3, silica, spongen
   classified by spicule make-up, amoeboid cells make spicules
2. amoeboid cells-digest & transport nutrients, produce sex cells, middle layer
3. epidermal cells-flat, irregularly shaped, thin, protection, has pores
4. pores- water enters sponge
5. collar cells- have flagellum, stirs H20 to eliminate water, collect food part.
6. sessile filter feeder- attatched to bottom, filters out food
7. osculum- water exit through hole in top, gets rid of waste.
8. diffusion allows water to all layers
9. reproduction-sexual & asexual
       sexual-collar cells change into gametes, exit through osculum, sperm
           through pore of another spong & find egg, develops into free-swimming
           larve
       asexual-budding(group of cells divide rapidly, break off)
10. regeneration-cut & put back in water (develop into whole)
11. all aquatic(both fresh &a